Why Chemistry Matters: =
Using
Inquiry in an Online Chemistry Course for Teachers
Mary V. Mawn,=
Abstract
This study investigates how the online course = Matter in Context uses the methods= of scientific inquiry to provide elementary and middle school teachers with everyday experiences related to fundamental chemical concepts. Throughout t= his course, teachers worked as scientists as they hypothesized, investigated, analyzed, and discussed their findings. These experiences contributed to teacher learning of science content and strengthened their science process = skills.
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Introduction
&= nbsp; Teachers' knowledge, experiences, and beliefs greatly impact what takes place in the classroom, with teachers' preparation in science content and pedagogy being positively related to student achievement in mathematics and science (Druva & Anderson, 1983; Monk, 1994; Darling-Hammond, 2000; The Southeast Cent= er for Teaching Quality, 2002). In the past, science content for many teachers consisted largely of lecture and validation labs (Smith & Anderson, 198= 4; Dunkin & Barnes, 1986, Boyer, 1987) with little attention given to undergraduate research experiences or applications of science in technologi= cal contexts (National Science Teachers Association, 2003). Accumulating a specified number of credit hours in a particular discipline was indicative = of content mastery. However, researchers have come to see that much more is ne= eded for teachers to acquire a deep understanding of the discipline and its practices (Anderson & Mitchener, 1994; Kennedy, 1999).
&= nbsp; Researchers suggest that, just like student learning, teacher learning should be framed= in constructivist learning theory and inquiry (Carter, 1990; Anderson et al., 1994; Borko & Putnam, = 1996). Teachers should learn content – and concomitantly, pedagogy – through engagement in learning activities that "mirrors" the same kinds of experiences that reformers hope teachers would provide their stude= nts (National Research Council, 1996; Borko & Putnam, 1996; Loucks-Horsley = et al., 1998). In addition, teache= rs of science should have significant and substantial involvement in laboratory experiences where they actively investigate phenomena that can be studied. = Teachers need to devise research questions, design procedures, collect and process d= ata, and report findings. Professi= onal development opportunities should promote learning activities that address interesting and significant problems or topics, integrate science in everyd= ay contexts, and foster collaboration among teachers and scientists (NRC, 1996= ).
&nb=
sp; Offered
through UMassOnline, Science Education Online (SEO) provides elementary and
middle school teachers with professional development opportunities designed=
to
meet their needs. This online graduate program combines the expertise of
science faculty with science educators to develop science and science educa=
tion
courses steeped in inquiry and tied to state and national standards. Aided =
by
kits of materials developed by course instructors, participants engage in a
variety of guided and open-ended inquiries as the primary means of developi=
ng
their understanding of the concepts. Participants then use these
strategies to develop learning experiences for their own classrooms. To date, SEO has offered sixteen sci=
ence
content and pedagogy courses wholly online, with additional online courses
under development.
&nbs=
p; This
research study explores how the SEO course
Matter in Context integrates inquiry with instruction to provide
appropriate professional development experiences for science teachers, using
what is known about teachers' learning of science, teachers' professional
development, and teachers' learning through online education.
Teachers'
Learning of Science
&nb=
sp; Between
1995 and 2003, eighth grade students in the
&nb=
sp; There
is evidence correlating student performance with teacher preparedness. In a
review of 65 studies of science teachers' characteristics and behaviors, Dr=
uva
and Anderson (1983) found students' science achievement was positively rela=
ted
to the teachers' course taking background in both education and science
(Darling-Hammond, 2000). Similarly, in a study of 2,829 students from the
Longitudinal Study of American Youth, it was found that teachers’ con=
tent
preparation, as measured by coursework in the subject field, was positively
related to student achievement in mathematics and science. Teacher education
coursework (e.g. methods courses in content areas) also had positive effect=
s on
student learning and sometimes had “more powerful effects than additi=
onal
preparation in the content area" (Monk, 1994; Southeast Center =
for
Teaching Quality, 2002).
&nb=
sp; The
Glenn Commission report, Before It'=
s Too
Late (2000), states that better mathematics and science teaching is
grounded in improving the quality of teacher preparation and in making
continuing professional education available for all teachers. With the call=
for
states to put highly-qualified teachers in every public school classroom (No
Child Left Behind Act of 2001, U.S. Department of Education, nd), there is a
great need to provide science teachers with on-going and relevant professio=
nal
development and certification opportunities.
Professio=
nal
Development of Teachers
&= nbsp; Much thought needs to be given to how teachers learn to teach; what teachers kno= w; how their knowledge is acquired; how it changes over time; and what process= es bring about change in individual teacher practices as well as deep and long-lasting change in science classrooms. Making strong links between pers= onal learning and the classroom context are important for teacher change in beli= efs and practice (Anderson & Mitchener, 1994; Borko & Putnam, 1996). Teachers need continued opportunities to deepen and expand their content kn= owledge so as to learn the strategies, models, and analogies needed to respond to students’ thinking and link new knowledge to everyday experiences (Bo= rko & Putnam, 1996).
&= nbsp; Birman, et al. (2000, p. 32) identifies several critical factors for effective professional development. They state: "Professional development should focus on deepening teachers' content knowledge and knowledge of how students learn particular content, on provid= ing opportunities for active learning, and on encouraging coherence in teachers' professional development experiences." Upon further investigation of t= he effects of professional development on teacher's instruction of math and science, this same research group found that professional development focus= ed on specific instructional practices increased teachers' use of those practi= ces in the classroom (Desimone, et al., 2002).
Teachers'
Learning Online
&= nbsp; Having access to professional development programs can be problematic, particularl= y in rural areas. To obtain the necessary training, and with the closest training center sometimes several hours away, rural teachers must deal with signific= ant time and travel constraints, which can be further exacerbated by budget pressures. Teachers in urban districts with large numbers of in-service days and increased classroom hours face similar time constraints (Pittinsky, 200= 5).
&= nbsp; Online professional development courses and programs can provide alternatives for teachers who do not have access to traditional learning opportunities based= on geographic remoteness, time, or both. Brown and Green (2003) summarize seve= ral advantages for online coursework: online courses can provide convenient acc= ess to professional development for teachers; asynchronous interactions may give students who generally stay quiet in traditional classrooms the opportunity= to speak and be heard; online courses can allow teachers to fit coursework into their schedules; and resources that may typically be available on a limited basis in a face-to-face class can be accessed at any time, from any place, = in an online course.
&=
nbsp; Developing
an effective online course involves more than putting lecture notes and
assignments onto a website. It is imperative that courses follow the seven
principles of good teaching: encourage student-faculty contact; encourage
cooperation (collaboration) among students; encourage active learning; prov=
ide
prompt feedback; emphasize time on task; communicate high expectations; and
respect diverse talents and ways of learning (Zuniga & Pease, 1998).
&=
nbsp; Reports
indicate that online courses can be successful in achieving educational goa=
ls
and can promote teacher learning of science. Te=
achers
describe positive experiences, with online coursework being comparable to
face-to-face coursework (Baron & McKay, 2001). They feel connected to t=
he
learning community, and they are intimately involved in the learning process
(Lee, et al., 2004). Teachers
appreciate their collaborative learning, and they do not feel that they are
working alone (Harlen & Doubler, 2004).
Learning Inquiry Online
&= nbsp; The distance learning environment may appear to be intrinsically "text-bas= ed"; however, online coursework can be more than words on a computer screen. By using inquiry and social constructivist approaches, science teachers can be engaged in authentic learning experiences that integrate both science conte= nt and pedagogy.
&= nbsp; In their study, Harlen and Doubler (2004) describe the online behaviors of teachers enrolled in a distance learning course that integrated inquiry with instruction. They report that online participants engaged in scientific investigations regularly used science inquiry skills, such as raising questions, reporting observations, making predictions, using evidence, givi= ng explanations, and extending investigations. As a result, teachers reported changes in their understanding of science content, and an increased confide= nce to teach science through inquiry. However, these researchers conclude that whi= le teachers can learn using inquiry online, their experiences may not be gener= alizable to other online courses.
This study further explores whether teachers can learn through scientific inquir= y in an online learning environment. Two key questions guided this study: How can inquiry-based activities be integrated with chemistry content in an online course for teachers, and to what extent do teachers apply their inquiry ski= lls as they investigate fundamental concepts in chemistry?
Methods
&=
nbsp; This
online chemistry course Matter in C=
ontext
was offered as part of the graduate degree program Science Education Online
(SEO) at the
= ; Matter in Context was divided into twelve sessions over the course of one semester. During a typical se= ssion, teachers carried out two to four inquiry-based experiments where they condu= cted investigations at home and discussed their findings with their classmates v= ia an online discussion board. T= hree experiments were selected for analysis. In the first experiment, teachers placed several drops of vanilla extract inside of a balloon, the balloon wa= s inflated, and the states of matter were observed.&nb= sp; In the second experiment, teachers explored the attractive and repul= sive forces between pieces of tape placed under different conditions. Finally, in the third experiment teachers placed drops of water on a penny and conducte= d a series of experiments that explored cohesive forces between water molecules. A summary of these experiments is shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1:
Sample experiments performe= d by teachers enrolled in Matter in Cont= ext.
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Experiment #1: The Fa=
st,
the Slow, the Big, and the Small |
|
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=
Purpose: Pro=
perties
of matter: Exploring the properties of atoms and molecules. |
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=
Materials: V=
anilla
extract, eyedropper, and latex balloon. |
|
|
|
Methods: <=
span
style=3D'color:black'>Add 4 or 5 drops of vanilla extract to balloon with=
an eye
dropper making sure that none of the vanilla extract touches the outside =
of
the balloon. Blow the balloon up and tie it off at the neck. Wash the
eyedropper and put the vanilla extract away. Wash the tied neck of the
balloon so that no vanilla extract could possibly be on the outside the
balloon. Observe the balloon closely. |
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|
Experiment #2: Taping the Charge |
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Purpose: |
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|
Materials:=
3M Scotch Brand Tape, metric ruler. |
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|
Methods Part 1=
: Using Scotch green 3M tape measure 2 pieces of
cellophane tape about 15 centimeters long. Fold one end of each piece ove=
r so
there is a non-sticking end.
Carefully stick each piece to a clean flat surface. Grip the non-sticky end of each =
piece of
cellophane tape and pull the 2 pieces off the clean flat surface. Careful=
ly
bring the two pieces close together and record your observations. |
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Methods Part 2: Using Scotch green 3M tape measure 2 pieces of cell=
ophane
tape about 15 centimeters long. Fold one end of each piece over so there =
is a
non-sticking end. Stick one=
piece
of tape to the same clean flat surface. Carefully stick the second piece =
of
tape on top of the first piece. Pull both pieces of tape off the flat cle=
an
surface, still stuck together. Grip each non sticky tab in each hand and =
pull
the two pieces of tape apart. Carefully bring the two pieces close togeth=
er
and record your observations. |
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Experiment #3: Making “Cents” of Surface
Tension |
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Purpose: |
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Materials:=
Water, small paper or plastic cup, penny, paper to=
wels,
eye dropper, dish washing detergent, toothpick. |
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&= nbsp; The National Science Education Standards were used as a basis for what constitu= tes scientific inquiry (NRC, 1996). A list of inqui= ry elements was initially compiled, with items being checked off as they as th= ey occurred. These instances were further characterized by determining whether each application of the skills= of inquiry could be classified as instructor-directed, learner-directed, or a combination of these two possibilities. To this end, a modified version of = Essential Features of Classroom Inquir= y and their Variations was adapted (NRC, 2000, p 29). This instrument, Elements of Online Inquiry, rates = sixteen key features of scientific inquiry using a three point scale, from 1= (instructor-directed) to 3 (learner-directed). A su= mmary of these elements and scale are shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. A description of each category was developed to ensure consistent categorizat= ion of collected data.
Results
&= nbsp; This study focused on how the inquiry-based nature of the online course activiti= es of Matter in Context fostered teachers' learning of science content, and modeled the teaching of science through inquiry. Two key ques= tions guided this study: How can inquiry-based activities be integrated with chemistry content in an online course for teachers, and to what extent do teachers apply their inquiry skills as they investigate fundamental concept= s in chemistry?
Integrati=
on of
content with inquiry
&= nbsp; To address the first question (how can inquiry-based activities be integrated = with chemistry content in an online course for teachers) evidence of scientific inquiry was collected from online discussions and student journals. Analysi= s of discussion and journal entries provided an opportunity to observe teacher interactions with their peers and with the course material. It was found that the teachers ind= eed used the skills of inquiry while completing course assignments. These findings, along with representative student excerpts, are as follows:
= ; Finding #1: Questions, predictions, observations, and hypotheses formed the bas= is for experimentation.
=
Experiment #1, Discussion excerpt:
=
Experiment #2, Discussion excerpt:
&=
nbsp; Finding
#2: In carrying out their experiment=
s, the
teachers made careful observations, kept records of their data, and control=
led
for variables.
=
Experiment #1, Journal excerpt:
=
Experiment #3, Journal excerpt:
&=
nbsp; Finding
#3: The teachers compared clarified,=
and
evaluated data, and reached conclusions via discussions with the "scie=
ntific
community" (their classmates).
=
Experiment #1, Discussion excerpt:
=
Experiment #2, Discussion excerpt:
&=
nbsp; Finding
#4: Extension questions
("wonderings") generated by the teachers often contributed to new
cycles of inquiry.
=
Experiment #1, Discussion excerpt:
=
Experiment #2, Discussion excerpt:
Relative application of inquiry skills
&nb=
sp; To
address the second question under study (to what extent do teachers apply t=
heir
inquiry skills as they investigate fundamental concepts in chemistry), an
instrument was devised that ranked the relative level of inquiry being used=
by
teachers. Sixteen
"elements" of scientific inquiry were identified (Table 2). As participants applied the skills=
of
inquiry, these instances were rated on a three-point scale according to lev=
el
of learner-directed versus instructor-directed inquiry (Table 3). Data
collected from online discussions derived from Experiment #1 (Properties of
Matter) was used for this analysis.
TABLE 2:
Elements of Online Inquiry.=
|
Elements of Onli=
ne
Inquiry |
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|
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A. |
Learner conducts scientific investigations.<= o:p> |
|
B. |
Learner engages in scientifically oriented quest=
ions. |
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C. |
Learner makes predictions about outcomes. |
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D. |
Learner makes systemic observations. |
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E. |
Learner forms hypotheses to be investigated.=
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F. |
Learner identifies variables that influence
scientific investigations. |
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G. |
Learner uses tools and techniques to gather,=
analyze,
and interpret data. |
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H. |
Learner gives priority to evidence in respon=
ding
to questions. |
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I. |
Learner formulates explanations from evidenc=
e. |
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J. |
Learner connects explanations to scientific know=
ledge
(external). |
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K. |
Learner extends the investigation. |
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L. |
Learner communicates and justifies explanati=
ons. |
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M. |
Learner participates in discussions with =
other
learners. |
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N. |
Learner uses math in all aspects of inquiry.=
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O. |
Learner refers to prior knowledge and experience=
s. |
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P. |
Learner demonstrates conceptual understanding. |
TABLE 3:
Variations of Online Inquir= y, used to rank the Elements of Online Inquiry.
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|
Variations of On=
line
Inquiry |
||
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SCALE: |
3 |
2 |
1 |
|
DESCRIPTION: |
Learner-directed inquiry; independent investigation=
s. |
Combination of learner- and instructor-directed inq=
uiry;
broad guidelines provided. |
Instructor-directed inquiry; specific guidelines
provided. |
&= nbsp; Finding #5: Many levels of inquir= y were observed, ranging from learner-directed inquiry to instructor-directed inquiry. These levels of inqu= iry varied from student to student. A su= mmary of these results are shown in Table 4.&nbs= p;
TABLE 4:
Elements of Online Inquiry = for Experiment #1 (Properties of Matter)
|
Elements of Inqu=
iry |
Students<=
/b> |
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S1 |
S2 |
S3 |
S4 |
S5 |
S6 |
S7 |
S8 |
S9 |
|
A. |
Learner conducts scientific investigations.<= o:p> |
2 |
2 |
2 |
1 |
2 |
2 |
1 |
1 |
1 |
|
B. |
Learner engages in scientifically oriented quest=
ions. |
2 |
2 |
1 |
1 |
2 |
1 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
|
C. |
Learner makes predictions about outcomes. |
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|
3 |
|
3 |
|
|
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D. |
Learner makes systemic observations. |
3, 2 |
3, 2 |
3, 2 |
3, 2 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
2 |
|
E. |
Learner forms hypotheses to be investigated.=
|
3 |
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3 |
3 |
3 |
|