Running Head: EXAMINING CHANGE IN THE PLANT RELATED CONCEPTIONS</tit= le> <o:SmartTagType namespaceuri=3D"urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name=3D"place"/> <o:SmartTagType namespaceuri=3D"urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name=3D"PlaceName"/> <o:SmartTagType namespaceuri=3D"urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name=3D"PlaceType"/> <o:SmartTagType namespaceuri=3D"urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name=3D"City"/> <o:SmartTagType namespaceuri=3D"urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name=3D"State"/> <o:SmartTagType namespaceuri=3D"urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name=3D"country-region"/>  <style>  </style>  </head> <body lang=3DEN-US link=3Dblue vlink=3Dpurple style=3D'tab-interval:.5in'> <div class=3DSection1> UNDERSTANDINGS OF IMPO= RTANT LIFE AND EARTH SCIENCE CONCEPTS AS A RESULT OF AN EXTENDED INQUIRY-BASED PL= ANT INVESTIGATION<o:p></o:p> <o:p> </o:p> Stephen T= hompson, <st1:place w:st=3D"on"><st1:PlaceType w:st=3D"on">University</st1:PlaceType= > of <st1:PlaceName w:st=3D"on">South Carolina</st1:PlaceName></st1:place><o:p></o:p> <o:p>&nbs= p;</o:p> Abstract<o:p></o:p> This study revealed the plant-related misconcept= ions held by a group of third graders. Further, this study explored the degree to which formative assessment practices influenced these misconceptions. Over = a 10 week period students investigated the fate of a plant sealed in an air tight jar and were exposed to a series of formative assessments focused on the specific plant related misconceptions students held. Findings suggest that students developed more complete understandings of important plant-related concepts as a result of this intervention. Article includes a discussion of= the impact of this research on the science education community. <o:p></o:p></sp= an> <o:p> </o:p> Examining Change<o:p></o:p></sp= an> This study= sought to reveal and challenge a group of third grade students’ misconceptio= ns about plant-related concepts. Further, this work sought to determine the de= gree to which formative assessment practices influenced these misconceptions. A = good deal of the elementary science curriculum is focused on plant related conce= pts. This is supported by the American Society of Plant Biologists, who emphasize that students at the K-4 level need to develop understandings of plant rela= ted concepts such as photosynthesis and respiration (2006). It is also supporte= d by the National Research Council’s (NRC) Life Science Standards, which recommend that students in grades K-4 develop understandings related to pla= nt structures and their functions (1= 996). In spite o= f this emphasis on student understanding of plant-related concepts <st1:place w:st= =3D"on">Clark</st1:place> (2004) found that most students go through their entire school experience without ever engaging in serious problem-solving activities related to plan= ts. This may help to explain why many students of all ages hold misconceptions related to plants and plant functions (Anderson, Sheldon & Dubay, 1990; Hershey, 2004; Ozay, E., &= amp; Oztas, H., 2003; Reinsvold, 1999). It may also explain why the same plant related misconceptions that surface in elementary students resurface in high school students and in adults with little change noted (Stein & McNair, 2002). As a possible solution to this dilemma Wandersee and Schussler (2001) suggest that students engage in early, well-planned, meaningful education a= bout plants that includes a variety of guided, direct experiences. These sugg= estions arise from an area of research that focuses on teaching strategies and how = they influence student learning in the sciences. This line of research informs t= he development of instructional methods and materials so that students develop deep understandings of scientific concepts. To promote this type of understanding, Hewson and Hewson (1984), among others (Druyan, 1997; Hashew, 1986; Kwon, 1997; Niaz, 1995), recommend teaching strategies that challenge student misconceptions by providing them with experiences that contradict t= heir existing cognitive structures. This cognitive conflict can produce a condit= ion of disequilibrium, which occurs when experiences cannot be reconciled within the context of existing cognitive structures (Bodner, 1986; Weaver, 1998). Posner, Strike, Hewson, and Gertzog (1982) suggested that in order for disequilibrium to occur there must be dissatisfaction with existing concept= ions on the part of the learner. The resulting disequilibrium is believed to be a motivating factor in student learning (Piaget, 1980). At the same time, cur= rent notions of conceptual change theory recognize that both affective and intellectual domains of thought influence cognitive equilibrium and learning (Lee, Kwon, Park, & Kim, 2003) so that students’ interests, feeli= ngs and motivations influence the degree to which conceptions can be altered. Further, Simpson, Koballa, Oliver, and <st1:place w:st=3D"on">Crawley</st1:= place> (1994) found that students’ interests may positively correlate with improved performance in science. Formative Assessment<o:p></o:p>= Science education reform docume= nts link content, assessment, and teaching while emphasizing that formative assessment is embedded in every aspect of school life (NRC 1996; 2000; 2001= ). Unlike assessments used to make judgments about the learning that takes pla= ce over a given period of time, formative assessments focus on enhancing learn= ing as it is actually taking place (Black, 1998). In this way formative assessm= ent is seamless with instruction; it is often difficult to tell when formative assessment ends and instruction begins. Research on the effectiveness of formative assessment suggests that it can enhance student achievement (Blac= k, 1998; Black & Wiliam, 1998; White & Fredriksen, 1998). However, this body of work has not examined the impact of formative assessment practices = on student understanding in the elementary science context (Furtak, 2005). <o:= p></o:p> Formative assessment involves students since they need to recognize, evaluate, and re= act to their own learning and/or assessments of their learning by others (Bell & Cowie, 2001; Sadler, 1989). This type of assessment provides feedback= to students in order to increase their degree of expertise and understanding (Sadler, 1989). The feedback can take many forms, from providing a demonstration to address specific student misconceptions to engaging in who= le class dialogue. Further, formative assessment research highlights that feed= back which enhances student awareness of the gaps between learning goals and the= ir own understandings produce the greatest student achievement gains (Bangert-Drowns, Kulick & Morgan, 1991; Sadler 1989). To enhance= student understanding of gaps between their own understandings and the learning goa= ls for this study, Curriculum Embedded assessments (Furtak, 2005) were employed. These formative assessments focused on specific questions to ask = or other pedagogical actions designed to elicit information from students. In = this way Curriculum Embedded assessments provided opportunities to make students aware of specific problem areas and allowed the instructor to teach to them. This study also employed another type of formative assessment known as Assessment Conversations (Duschl, 2003; Duschl & Gitomer, 1997) to gath= er information about student conceptions. Assessment Conversations are a type = of instructional dialogue that embeds assessment within an activity that is already occurring. This dialogue emphasizes classroom discourse focused on student-generated observations and explanations for those observations, whi= le encouraging student argumentation based on evidence. This form of discourse= was used to make students aware of gaps in their thinking, to inform instructio= n, and as data for this study. <h2>Research Design</h2> This study= sought to answer the following questions: What conceptions do third g= rade students hold about plant-related functions? Can formal assessment pract= ices alter the plant-related misconceptions held by students? To examine these questions = the researcher first identified the plant-related misconceptions held by a grou= p of third graders. Next, the researcher examined the degree to which these misconceptions were overcome as a result of an extended instructional intervention that employed formative assessment measures known to influence= the achievement of older students in disciplines other than science (Black, 199= 8; Black & Wiliam, 1998; White & Fredriksen, 1998). Context<o:p></o:p> This study took place over a ten-week period = within a single third grade classroom of twenty-one mixed ability level students, = 11 boys (1 African American, 10 Caucasian) and 10 girls (2 African American, 8 Caucasian), in a small, urban elementary school in the southeast. The researcher worked closely with a highly regarded, veteran classroom teacher= to create and implement the instructional and data collection activities associated with this study. Each week the teacher and the researcher met pr= ior to interacting with students to discuss assessment data and student learnin= g, with a goal of determining student misconceptions and designing Curriculum Embedded Assessments and Assessment Conversations that concentrated on those same misconceptions. Following this interaction the researcher spent one day each week in the classroom as a participant observer. Methods<o:p></o:= p> To initiat= e the study two small Ivy (Hedera) plants were placed in a medium of potting soil inside separate two-gallon clear glass jars. One was covered with a glass l= id and sealed with duct tape while the second was left open. Both received appropriate amounts of sunlight and enough water to make the soil slightly moist. Students were told that the open container would be watered “as needed” while the closed container would remain sealed. Students then completed their initial work samples, which required that they respond to t= he question, what would happen to the plant in the sealed jar? Responses inclu= ded a specific life-span estimate for the sealed plant-in-a-jar along with eith= er an explanation (justification) for their estimate or a statement about additional information needed to answer the question. Students t= hen recorded observations of the plants in written and audio journals over a ten-week period. Throughout this time students were also encouraged to prov= ide possible explanations for their observations. Student journal entries were shared with the entire class at the beginning of weekly Assessment Conversations and the class was encouraged to react to the entries. During these dialogues students developed group explanations for journal observati= ons and new vocabulary were introduced as students encountered the concepts that the vocabulary represented. These conversations served to elicit student thinking about the plant question and provided information needed to develop future Curriculum Embedded assessments. Based on s= tudent conceptions, other items designed to promote student understanding of vario= us concepts were also put on display. These included demonstrations such as cut celery soaked in food coloring and a hydroponics plant growing system that = were used during instruction related to transpiration. They also included Curric= ulum Embedded assessments used during instruction such as an aquatic plant used = to show the influence of light on photosynthesis. <h3>Data Collection<o:p></o:p><= /u></h3> Work samples were collected from all students= at the beginning, mid-point, and end of the study. Each work sample required students to commit to a plant life-span estimate and provide a justification for the estimate. Typically students drew pictures and included text and/or diagrams to explain their plant life span estimates. All text and audio jou= rnal entries were transcribed and included in the data analysis. Student journal= drawings and other artifacts generated during plant-related activities were examined= to determine the plant-related conceptions they revealed. All Assessment Conversations were recorded on audiotape and transcribed. Additionally, the teacher took summary field notes during these conversations, while the researcher took “in the midst” observation notes and field notes immediately after the fact. <h3>Data Analysis<o:p></o:p></u= ></h3> <h1 style=3D'text-indent:.5in'>Pre-data = were analyzed collectively and patterns in student thinking about various science concepts related to the plant-in-a-jar were identified. Analysis focused on= the study of particular instances, in this situation the initial plant-related conceptions held by participants. Based on patterns apparent in the analysi= s of student conceptions, three themes were identified. An individual was then selected as a representative case from each thematic group and a substantial amount of data analysis was conducted on all additional case data. Finally, data from other students were also examined to determine the degree to which the changes apparent within the cases could be generalized to the larger thematic subgroups.<o:p></o:p></h1> <s= pan style=3D'mso-tab-count:1'> &= nbsp; No attempt was made to probe indivi= dual students about concepts they did not focus on themselves. This decision was based on the notion that student interests, feelings and motivations influe= nce conceptual change (Simpson, Koballa, Oliver, & Crawley, 1994; Lee, Kwon, Park, & Kim, 2003). This decision was also supported by contemporary theories of learning which rest on the assumptions that people construct new knowledge based on what they already know and believe, and that existing conceptions are based on prior experience (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Thus, this researcher investigated only those conceptions students h= ad enough interest in to focus on themselves as this was seen as an indication= of readiness for cognitive change around that particular concept.<o:p></o:p></= span> <h1 align=3Dcenter style=3D'text-align:center'>Findings<o:p></o:p></h1> Table 1 hi= ghlights the conceptions revealed by students in their initial plant life-span justifications. In most cases students believed that the plant in the sealed jar would soon die (n=3D18). The majority of students stated that the plant= would die because the sealed jar would restrict the plant’s access to a sin= gle resource such as air. Other student justifications focused on the lack of multiple resources in the jar, i.e., “The plant will die because it doesn’t get any more water and air.” Student responses were recorded in the manner they were stated.&n= bsp; Those that focused on only one resource, i.e., air, were recorded as such while those that focused on more than one resource, i.e., air and wate= r, were also recorded as a single “instance”. Examination of this data reveal= ed three major themes in the initial justifications provided by students, each focused on a different plant-related misconception. The first, found in the pre-assessments completed by 11 students, was that the plant would soon die= due to a lack of “fresh air”. Although students within this group u= sed different vocabulary, their responses showed that they held misconceptions = related to the gas exchanges occurring = within the sealed jar. The second theme, apparent in 7 students’ pre-assessments, was that the plant would die soon because there was not en= ough water available inside the sealed jar. The third theme, apparent in the pre-assessments of 4 <o:p></o:p> <h1>Table 1 <o:p></o:p></h1> <h1>Pre Plant Life-span Justifications<o= :p></o:p></h1> <table class=3DMsoNormalTable border=3D1 cellspacing=3D0 cellpadding=3D0 wi= dth=3D"100%" style=3D'width:100.0%;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;mso-border-alt:= solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid windowte= xt; mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext'> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:0;mso-yfti-firstrow:yes'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Student explanations (n = =3D 21) </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-left:none;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Total </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:1'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Lack of fresh air </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 6 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:2'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Lack of water </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 4 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:3'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Lack of fresh air and wat= er </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 2 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:4'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Lack of fresh air, water,= and nutrients </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 1 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:5'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Lack of fresh air and too= much water </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 2 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:6'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Too much water = ; </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 2 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:7'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough water </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 1 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:8'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough water and nutrient= </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 1 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:9;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> No justification </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 2 </td> </tr> </table> <o:p> </o:p> students, was that the plant se= aled in the jar would die from too much moisture being trapped in the jar. </spa= n>Each = of these misconception themes is represented here by a purposefully selected c= ase. The cases show the evolution of student ideas apparent in one member of each thematic group and capture the depth of student thinking about plant-related processes witnessed during this study. Further, each individual selected as= a case experienced some degree of conceptual change that could be connected to the discourse and activities associated with this study. Within this case discussion, instances= from classroom activities are included to demonstrate how these formative assessments provided support and scaffolding for the conceptual change experienced by the example cases. Additionally, each case includes a brief discussion of the understandings exhibited by other students related = to the particular theme being discussed. <o:p></o:p> “What about the Air?”<o:p></o:p> In his ini= tial justification <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place= ></st1:City> (pseudonym) stated, “I think the plant will die because it might not = get enough air” (work sample 1). This type of response was typical of tho= se given by students when they discussed the air in the sealed jar. Most used little scientific vocabulary in their initial justifications; none mentioned photosynthesis, cellular respiration, or carbon dioxide and only one used t= he term oxygen, “Eventually the container will be filled with oxygen so = the plant cannot live” (Student 4, work sample 1). The response given by Student 4 hinted at the common misconception held by Tyler and the other students, that the plant in the jar would produce oxygen but not use it up. Additional probing during Assessment Conversations revealed that most of th= ese students held a basic understanding of photosynthesis, but none considered = that a plant could respire. This notion is captured here when <st1:City w:st=3D"= on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City> talked about what plants need to survive, “They (plants) need us cause we exhale carbon dioxide, so it’s kind of like a circle. We need the oxygen plants make and they n= eed the carbon dioxide we make” (Assessment Conversation 1). As the unit progressed <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></= st1:City> held to his ideas about the gases in the jar. This exchange that took place during Assessment Conversation 3 further revealed and clarified his thinkin= g. Teacher: When you breathe oxygen in, it goe= s in your lungs and then what? Student 9: The red blood cells in the blood absorb the oxygen and take it to all parts of your body. C= ause oxygen is required. Teacher: So a real important piece of= this is that it has to do with cells, right because the cells of your body need = that oxygen, yes? <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City>: Well in a differ= ent way this connects to the plant in the jar. Eventually the plant will die because there won’t be any carbon dioxide left. Because the plant tak= es in carbon dioxide and gives off oxygen, so eventually all that will be left= is oxygen. Teacher: So you’re pretty= sure it is going to die soon, it’s going to kind of suffocate? <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:p= lace></st1:City>: Exactly. During wee= k five of the study <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place>= </st1:City> began to recognize and confront his own misconceptions, “The plant-in-a-jar seems to be getting everything it needs. It would have run o= ut of what it needs a long time ago but it somehow is getting what it needs= 221; (Assessment Conversation 5). Later during the same conversation <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City> restated his thinking, making his disequilibria clear, “Plants do consume carbon dioxide so it should have been all gone, but somehow it’s not.”= As the pla= nt continued to live <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:p= lace></st1:City> sought additional information to help him make sense of the mismatch between what he was observing and what he was thinking. He also began to propose alternate ideas that would allow him to reconcile the differences between t= he two. <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:C= ity>: Are humans the on= ly ones who breathe out carbon dioxide? Teacher: I think = it is the same for anything that is alive. <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City>: Well maybe= it is possible that somehow it (the plant) is recycling the gas. Teacher: Say more= about it. <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City>: We’ve talk= ed about other stuff that comes out of the plant, like water. But there might = be some other way for oxygen to turn into carbon dioxide. Teacher: So you think the carbon dioxide is= being recycled in there? <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City>: Yes. Teacher: That might help explain why t= he plant is still so healthy. This also reminds me of what Jennifer (pseudonym) keeps saying; that the carbon dioxide has got to be running out by now. Jennifer: The plant gets in carbon dioxide a= nd lets out oxygen. <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City>: Yes, but we brea= the out carbon dioxide too. So why can’t it work the same way with plants? (Assessment Conversation 6) <o:p> </o:p> Based on these and = other similar exchanges, a Curriculum Embedded Assessment and an Assessment Conversation focused on cellular respiration were developed and implemented. The assessment used computer probes to measure and compare the amount of ca= rbon dioxide gas produced by germinating pea seeds to the amount of carbon dioxi= de gas produced by non-germinating pea seeds. The conversation focused on all living things respiring at the cellular level, that plants are made of live cells, and that the production of carbon dioxide gas in our demonstration w= as evidence of cellular respiration. Tyler experienced an “aha” mo= ment when the class discussed the results and made connections to the plant-in-a-jar, providing the first evidence that he was beginning to resol= ve his own misconceptions. Teacher: What = does the increase (in carbon dioxide gas) tell us about the pea seeds? Student 2: It tells us th= ey are producing carbon dioxide gas. Teacher: If pea seeds make carbon dioxide gas, do you think they stop when they turn into plants? Students: No Student 17: Does that mean that plants breathe? Teacher: </span= >Sort of, not like you and I do, but they do respire and make carbon dioxide gas. It’s called cellular respiration. Every plant cell takes in oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. Does this change the way you think about what is g= oing on with the gas in that jar? Student 9: When does the = plant take in carbon dioxide and oxygen and release them? Teacher: Most= ly at the same time, oxygen is made during the day and carbon dioxide is made all= the time. But I think more oxygen is made during the day than the plant uses up= . <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City>: &= nbsp; Then the plant can make all of the gases it needs! Teacher: I th= ink so. <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City>: &= nbsp; Ohhh, I just thought that the plant could live, but I did not know exactly why. It seems like it does have enough of everything (Assessment Conversation 7).<s= pan style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> <o:p> </o:p> </spa= n>Later, the degree to which <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1= :place></st1:City> enhanced his understanding about the gases in the sealed plant jar was apparent. Approximately three weeks after the pea seed demonstration and associated conversation he stated, “The plant-in-a-jar lived a long t= ime because not only was the plant making oxygen, but it was also making carbon dioxide and recycling water and that is what it needed” (work sample = 3). In this example case <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><s= t1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City> developed more complete understan= dings of the gas-related processes taking place within the sealed jar. On his post-assessment he also discussed the water cycle in the sealed jar, a topic not discussed on his pre-assessment. The majority of students who expressed similar misconceptions about gas exchange processes experienced similar positive gains in their understandings about these processes as a result of this work (see summary table in Appendix). In some cases these understandin= gs were stated very simply, “Since the plant-in-a-jar makes its own gases and recycles water, it should not die soon” (Student 13, work sample = 3). In other cases students used scientific language to state their understandi= ngs, “The plant lived because it took in CO2 and made O2</= sub> through photosynthesis, but also took in O2 and made CO2</s= ub> when it breathed” (Student 20, work sample 3). These examples highlig= ht how dialogue with others, focused on explaining observations, provided the impetus for change in student conceptions. Further, this example case showed that confronting misconceptions through meaningful encounters and focused experiences with the concepts in context could have a significant impact on student learning. “Not Enough Water”<o:p>= </o:p> </s= pan>The initial justification provided by Judy (pseudonym) focused on her belief th= at the sealed plant-in-the-jar would not have enough water to survive, “I think that the plant is going to die because it needs water. The plant will= die without water in about 2-5 weeks” (work sample 1). Six other students expressed similar misconceptions at the beginning of this study. Further on= ly 1 student mentioned or portrayed processes associated with the water cycle on= the pre-assessment. Early stud= ent observations focused almost exclusively on moisture in the sealed jar and t= he sharing of observations generated much student discussion, which became a scaffold for student thinking. The following dialogue, captured early in the study, represents the types of student discussions that took place during Assessment Conversations and show how thinking was enhanced through dialogue with peers. Student 8: I noti= ced that the plant has gotten a lot foggier. Student 21: I noticed in the jar that was closed up, it has a lot of fog in it. = It has a lot more than it did yesterday and it’s really misty.= Judy: &= nbsp; I noticed that the sealed up plant has wet leaves because of all the fog moisture. Student 21: Kind of like a mini rain cloud. Judy: </span= >Yea, a mini rain cloud. (Assessment Conversation 2) <o:p> </o:p> This example also shows how students worked from observation toward explanation. The explanations were collaborative in nature and acted as a catalyst for the generation of more complete ideas than students were capable of independently. In this example Judy was able to share her thinking and obtain feedback from peers, at the = same time students worked together using collaborative dialogue to “name&#= 8221; her observation and connect it to their prior knowledge. </s= pan>Later, the class discussed their moisture-related observations and possible explanations for them. During this Assessment Conversation students talked about the water cycle taking place in the sealed plant jar. At this point t= he teacher mentioned that some of the moisture in the jar goes into the plant = at its roots, which created concern and uncertainty among the students. Here J= udy proposed a possible explanation for this newly discovered piece of data. </= p> Student 1: I was just going to say that the plant-in-a-jar can probably recycle wat= er because here on earth we are not getting anymore water but we are not runni= ng out of water. Teacher: O.= K. Judy: &= nbsp; I think that there are lots of cycles for living things and a plant is a livi= ng thing. So maybe it just had one for water. So I think water may somehow come through the leaves because I always heard that it goes into leaves. (Assess= ment Conversation 3) <o:p> </o:p> Based on these and similar conversations, the= teacher and researcher developed and implemented a Curriculum Embedded Assessment a= nd Assessment Conversation focused on transpiration. The assessment required students to cover a portion of an outdoor plant with a plastic sandwich bag= gy and make observations of it for fifteen minutes. During the activity studen= ts discovered that water was exiting the plant through its leaves. In the Assessment Conversation that followed Judy began to solidify her earlier id= eas about water exiting plant leaves. Student 3: Remember we said the earth is not getting any new water on it. Then it d= oes not have any more water on it now than ever before. Judy: &= nbsp; Then things are obviously recycling water. The earth is not gaining any more wat= er so nothing really uses it up. Teacher: Anyone want to say anything else about that? Why is the plant not using the water up? Judy: &= nbsp; Maybe the plant is taking the water up, in the roots, and then it takes the stuff= it needs from the water. Then the water goes back out through the leaves. (Ass= essment Conversation 4) <o:p> </o:p> This exchange provi= des another example of how instruction focused on student misconceptions, suppo= rted by Assessment Conversations, acted as scaffolding for students; helping them make additional connections and thereby developing more complete understandings. At the end of this study a clear change in th= e way that Judy thought about water in the sealed jar was revealed, I think that the plant is still alive because at first = we watered it once. The plant takes up some of the water and it moves through = the plant and goes out the leaves. Some of the water evaporates from the soil i= nto the jar too. All the water becomes little drops on the side and the water s= ort of rains down on the plant. (work sample 3) <o:p> </o:p> Fourteen other st= udents expressed similar understandings on their post-assessments (see Appendix for summary data). All stated that the plant-in-the-jar would have enough water to survive. This is a significant change from the pre-assessments on which only 2 students stated that the plant-in-a-jar would have enough wate= r to survive and 11 stated that they = plant would die from a lack of water. In addition 8 of the students accura= tely discussed and/or portrayed the water cycle on their post-assessments. The c= an be contrasted with the pre-assessments completed by these same students on which only 1 student included information about the water cycle. The case of Judy further demonstrates how instruction focused on misconceptions, accompanied by evidentiary-based dialogue, acted as scaffolding for student learning. Her examples illustrate that student observations, accompanied by dialogue with others focused on explaining those observations, provided a catalyst for change in conception= s. This case also highlighted the power of focused, as needed, Curriculum Embe= dded Assessments that promote recognition and confrontation of misconceptions.</= p> “Too Much Water”<o:p></o:p>= </s= pan>Zina’s (pseudonym) initial conception that “The plant will die because of too much water” (work sample 1), was also held by 3 other students in this study group. As discussed in the case of Judy, the first weeks of independe= nt student observations and dialogue focused on the moisture apparent inside of the sealed jar. During this time many students were making connections to important science concepts such as conservation of matter and the water cyc= le. Even as other students were sharing these types of ideas, Zina held to her original conceptions, “Water keeps raining down on the plant. The mis= t on the sides keeps raining down on the plant. It may make it too moist” (Assessment Conversation 2). <= /p> Over the n= ext couple of weeks, student conversations comparing observations of the moistu= re in the sealed jar to the water cycle continued. During this time Zina wrote= in the observation journal, “On Friday the plant with the top on it was = not foggy but today it started to get foggy again”. This was her first mention of variation in the amount of water visible in the jar. When the observation was shared with the class during the weekly Assessment Conversa= tion it led to a class discussion of variations that occur in water cycle proces= ses (i.e., the rate of evaporation changes due to atmospheric conditions). Following = the transpiration activity previously described Zina returned to the issue of water. During this dialogue, she talked about her observations of moisture captured in a plastic bag placed over plant leaves and then hinted that her ideas about water in the jar were changing, I think that the water from the roots is going up t= hrough the stem into the leaf that is in the bag. Really the whole question is, do= es the plant make any water or just use it? Because water is the stuff that is= on the inside of the bag and it came from the plant roots. That’s like t= he plant-in-a-jar. It can only use the water that is in the soil already. (Assessment Conversation 4) <o:p> </o:p= > During an Assessment Conversation that took place the following week, students were a= sked to share how their ideas about the plant-in-a-jar had changed. During this conversation Zina stated, I thought the plant would die from too much water. = I did not know if plants made a lot more water and I did not remember about the w= ater cycle. But now I know that all the water stays in the jar and gets used over and over again. (Assessment Conversation 4) <o:p> </o:p> Approximately six weeks aft= er stating her revised conceptions publicly Zina returned to the issue of wate= r on her post-assessment, “I think the plant is still alive because the pl= ant keeps watering itself. It has all the water it needs and keeps reusing it” (work sample 3). Like Judy,= Zina did not focus much of her thinking on other important plant related concepts such as photosynthesis or respiration. Instead, she focused most of her thinking on a single question related to the water in the jar. Even though = they held diverse conceptions related to the moisture in the jar initially, both Zina and Judy benefited from well-planned interventions and the collaborati= ve idea building that took place during classroom discourse. These changes reinforce the importance of well-planned interventions and dialogue, focuse= d on personal conceptions, as devices to promote conceptual change. Summary<o:p></o:p> Not all the students involved in this project experienced the same degree of cognitive growth. Further, these findings revealed that students did not always focus their thinking on the intended topics, but instead focused on those concept= ions that were most apparent and relevant to them. Table 2 summarizes the post-s= tudy justifications students provided to the prompt, “Why is the plant-in-= a-sealed jar still alive?” These results show a trend toward more complete understandings of important plant-related concepts. At the same time, the findings revealed that some students still held misconceptions or only focu= sed on certain factors related to the health of the sealed plant. Consistent wi= th previous research (Bangert-Drowns, Kulick & Morgan, 1991; Sadler 1989), making personal gaps in understanding apparent to students appeared to be a= key to altering student misconceptions during this study. <h1>Table 2 <o:p></o:p></h1> <h1>Post Plant Life-span Justifications<= o:p></o:p></h1> <table class=3DMsoNormalTable border=3D1 cellspacing=3D0 cellpadding=3D0 wi= dth=3D"100%" style=3D'width:100.0%;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;mso-border-alt:= solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid windowte= xt; mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext'> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:0;mso-yfti-firstrow:yes'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Student explanations (n = =3D 21) </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-left:none;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Total </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:1'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough air </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 4 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:2'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough air and water </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 8 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:3'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough water </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 2 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:4'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough water and nutrient= s </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 1 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:5'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough air, water and nut= rients </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 3 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:6'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough water, lack of air= = ; </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 1 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:7;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> No justification </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 2 </td> </tr> </table> <o:p> </o:p> In this case students were = provided with contextualized opportunities to identify their own misconceptions thro= ugh a series of Curriculum Embedded Assessments (Furtak, 2005). These assessmen= ts provided students with instruction and experiences focused on their specific misconceptions, thereby promoting the type of dissonance required for conceptual change to occur. Students also had many opportunities to engage = in discourse about their thinking through Assessment Conversations (Duschl 200= 3; Duschl & Gitomer, 1997), as well as extended periods of time to struggle with gaps in their own thinking. These conversations served as a type of discourse treatment that pushed student thinking. That these treatments occurred over time also seemed to be relevant. For example, Zina needed repeated discourse treatments over an extended period of time in order to reconcile the misconceptions she held. <o:p> </o:p> <h2>Implications<o:p></o:p></h2> The limitations associated with= this study cannot be ignored when discussing this research. This work was conduc= ted in conjunction between a university researcher and a highly effective, vete= ran classroom teacher. This unique form of collaboration brought enhanced resources, as well as additional human and intellectual capital that are not typical of the elementary classroom. This work took place over an extended period of time and focused on answering a single question. As a result it becomes important to determine which of these factors or combination of factors had the greatest influence= on this change. These limitations, in conjunction with these findings, highlig= ht the need for additional studies that measure the influence of formative assessment practices on students’ understanding of science concepts in more typical elementary classroom settings. <o:p></o:p> If found to be effective instructional tools in other studies, these findings have implications for = the way science is taught in elementary grades, as well as the emphasis placed = on it. This instructional model focused on studying fewer questions, in-depth = and over time, while providing students with focused feedback and many opportunities to share their thinking. This type of instructional shift will require a rethinking and reconfiguration of science education as it current= ly exists in elementary schools. </span= ><o:p></o:p> </s= pan>This research also informs those working with current and future science teacher= s. These findings suggest that science methods courses need to do more than ex= pose preservice teachers to “practice” model science lessons or theo= ries of learning. Instead science methods courses need to become environments wh= ere preservice teachers have opportunities to engage students in formative assessment practices. Only by engaging students in these practices will sci= ence teachers be able to apply them in their own classrooms. Thus, a clear focus= on formative assessment practices must become part of science methods courses.= </s= pan>Finally, this work has significance for the role that school-based experiences play = in science methods courses. This research points to the value of holding scien= ce methods courses in local schools so that preservice teachers have access to actual students. This creates a number of challenges and possibilities in t= erms of K-12 and university collaborations. A shift of this proportion would req= uire a major re-thinking of university reward structures as arrangement for these experiences necessitate significant investment and work in local schools by university faculty. References<o:p></o:p> <= span style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>American Society of Plant Biolo= gists, (2006). Principles of plant biology: Concepts for science education. 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Cognition and Instruction, 16(1), 3-118. <u= >Appen= dix<o:p></o:p> <s= pan style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Plant= -related Conceptions Revealed by Students <o:p></o:p> <table class=3DMsoNormalTable border=3D1 cellspacing=3D0 cellpadding=3D0 style=3D'margin-left:.5in;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;mso-border-= alt: solid windowtext .5pt;mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;mso-border-insid= eh: .5pt solid windowtext;mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext'> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:0;mso-yfti-firstrow:yes;page-break-inside:avoid= '> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-alt:so= lid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td colspan=3D3 valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;borde= r-left: none;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windo= wtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Pre<o:p></o:p> </td> <td colspan=3D3 valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;borde= r-left: none;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windo= wtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Post<o:p></o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:1;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Stu= dent<o:p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Gas= Cycle<o:p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Wat= er Cycle<o:p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Nut= rients<o:p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Gas= Cycle<o:p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Wat= er Cycle<o:p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Nut= rients<o:p></o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:2;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>1<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:3;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>2<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:4;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>3<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:5;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>4<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:6;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>5<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:7;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>6<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; 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border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:9;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>8<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:10;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>9<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <

MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; boundary="----=_NextPart_01C796EA.DEDFA1A0" This document is a Single File Web Page, also known as a Web Archive file. If you are seeing this message, your browser or editor doesn't support Web Archive files. Please download a browser that supports Web Archive, such as Microsoft Internet Explorer. ------=_NextPart_01C796EA.DEDFA1A0 Content-Location: file:///C:/27694411/Thompson_1.htm Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Type: text/html; charset="us-ascii" Running Head: EXAMINING CHANGE IN THE PLANT RELATED CONCEPTIONS</tit= le> <o:SmartTagType namespaceuri=3D"urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name=3D"place"/> <o:SmartTagType namespaceuri=3D"urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name=3D"PlaceName"/> <o:SmartTagType namespaceuri=3D"urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name=3D"PlaceType"/> <o:SmartTagType namespaceuri=3D"urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name=3D"City"/> <o:SmartTagType namespaceuri=3D"urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name=3D"State"/> <o:SmartTagType namespaceuri=3D"urn:schemas-microsoft-com:office:smarttags" name=3D"country-region"/>  <style>  </style>  </head> <body lang=3DEN-US link=3Dblue vlink=3Dpurple style=3D'tab-interval:.5in'> <div class=3DSection1> UNDERSTANDINGS OF IMPO= RTANT LIFE AND EARTH SCIENCE CONCEPTS AS A RESULT OF AN EXTENDED INQUIRY-BASED PL= ANT INVESTIGATION<o:p></o:p> <o:p> </o:p> Stephen T= hompson, <st1:place w:st=3D"on"><st1:PlaceType w:st=3D"on">University</st1:PlaceType= > of <st1:PlaceName w:st=3D"on">South Carolina</st1:PlaceName></st1:place><o:p></o:p> <o:p>&nbs= p;</o:p> Abstract<o:p></o:p> This study revealed the plant-related misconcept= ions held by a group of third graders. Further, this study explored the degree to which formative assessment practices influenced these misconceptions. Over = a 10 week period students investigated the fate of a plant sealed in an air tight jar and were exposed to a series of formative assessments focused on the specific plant related misconceptions students held. Findings suggest that students developed more complete understandings of important plant-related concepts as a result of this intervention. Article includes a discussion of= the impact of this research on the science education community. <o:p></o:p></sp= an> <o:p> </o:p> Examining Change<o:p></o:p></sp= an> This study= sought to reveal and challenge a group of third grade students’ misconceptio= ns about plant-related concepts. Further, this work sought to determine the de= gree to which formative assessment practices influenced these misconceptions. A = good deal of the elementary science curriculum is focused on plant related conce= pts. This is supported by the American Society of Plant Biologists, who emphasize that students at the K-4 level need to develop understandings of plant rela= ted concepts such as photosynthesis and respiration (2006). It is also supporte= d by the National Research Council’s (NRC) Life Science Standards, which recommend that students in grades K-4 develop understandings related to pla= nt structures and their functions (1= 996). In spite o= f this emphasis on student understanding of plant-related concepts <st1:place w:st= =3D"on">Clark</st1:place> (2004) found that most students go through their entire school experience without ever engaging in serious problem-solving activities related to plan= ts. This may help to explain why many students of all ages hold misconceptions related to plants and plant functions (Anderson, Sheldon & Dubay, 1990; Hershey, 2004; Ozay, E., &= amp; Oztas, H., 2003; Reinsvold, 1999). It may also explain why the same plant related misconceptions that surface in elementary students resurface in high school students and in adults with little change noted (Stein & McNair, 2002). As a possible solution to this dilemma Wandersee and Schussler (2001) suggest that students engage in early, well-planned, meaningful education a= bout plants that includes a variety of guided, direct experiences. These sugg= estions arise from an area of research that focuses on teaching strategies and how = they influence student learning in the sciences. This line of research informs t= he development of instructional methods and materials so that students develop deep understandings of scientific concepts. To promote this type of understanding, Hewson and Hewson (1984), among others (Druyan, 1997; Hashew, 1986; Kwon, 1997; Niaz, 1995), recommend teaching strategies that challenge student misconceptions by providing them with experiences that contradict t= heir existing cognitive structures. This cognitive conflict can produce a condit= ion of disequilibrium, which occurs when experiences cannot be reconciled within the context of existing cognitive structures (Bodner, 1986; Weaver, 1998). Posner, Strike, Hewson, and Gertzog (1982) suggested that in order for disequilibrium to occur there must be dissatisfaction with existing concept= ions on the part of the learner. The resulting disequilibrium is believed to be a motivating factor in student learning (Piaget, 1980). At the same time, cur= rent notions of conceptual change theory recognize that both affective and intellectual domains of thought influence cognitive equilibrium and learning (Lee, Kwon, Park, & Kim, 2003) so that students’ interests, feeli= ngs and motivations influence the degree to which conceptions can be altered. Further, Simpson, Koballa, Oliver, and <st1:place w:st=3D"on">Crawley</st1:= place> (1994) found that students’ interests may positively correlate with improved performance in science. Formative Assessment<o:p></o:p>= Science education reform docume= nts link content, assessment, and teaching while emphasizing that formative assessment is embedded in every aspect of school life (NRC 1996; 2000; 2001= ). Unlike assessments used to make judgments about the learning that takes pla= ce over a given period of time, formative assessments focus on enhancing learn= ing as it is actually taking place (Black, 1998). In this way formative assessm= ent is seamless with instruction; it is often difficult to tell when formative assessment ends and instruction begins. Research on the effectiveness of formative assessment suggests that it can enhance student achievement (Blac= k, 1998; Black & Wiliam, 1998; White & Fredriksen, 1998). However, this body of work has not examined the impact of formative assessment practices = on student understanding in the elementary science context (Furtak, 2005). <o:= p></o:p> Formative assessment involves students since they need to recognize, evaluate, and re= act to their own learning and/or assessments of their learning by others (Bell & Cowie, 2001; Sadler, 1989). This type of assessment provides feedback= to students in order to increase their degree of expertise and understanding (Sadler, 1989). The feedback can take many forms, from providing a demonstration to address specific student misconceptions to engaging in who= le class dialogue. Further, formative assessment research highlights that feed= back which enhances student awareness of the gaps between learning goals and the= ir own understandings produce the greatest student achievement gains (Bangert-Drowns, Kulick & Morgan, 1991; Sadler 1989). To enhance= student understanding of gaps between their own understandings and the learning goa= ls for this study, Curriculum Embedded assessments (Furtak, 2005) were employed. These formative assessments focused on specific questions to ask = or other pedagogical actions designed to elicit information from students. In = this way Curriculum Embedded assessments provided opportunities to make students aware of specific problem areas and allowed the instructor to teach to them. This study also employed another type of formative assessment known as Assessment Conversations (Duschl, 2003; Duschl & Gitomer, 1997) to gath= er information about student conceptions. Assessment Conversations are a type = of instructional dialogue that embeds assessment within an activity that is already occurring. This dialogue emphasizes classroom discourse focused on student-generated observations and explanations for those observations, whi= le encouraging student argumentation based on evidence. This form of discourse= was used to make students aware of gaps in their thinking, to inform instructio= n, and as data for this study. <h2>Research Design</h2> This study= sought to answer the following questions: What conceptions do third g= rade students hold about plant-related functions? Can formal assessment pract= ices alter the plant-related misconceptions held by students? To examine these questions = the researcher first identified the plant-related misconceptions held by a grou= p of third graders. Next, the researcher examined the degree to which these misconceptions were overcome as a result of an extended instructional intervention that employed formative assessment measures known to influence= the achievement of older students in disciplines other than science (Black, 199= 8; Black & Wiliam, 1998; White & Fredriksen, 1998). Context<o:p></o:p> This study took place over a ten-week period = within a single third grade classroom of twenty-one mixed ability level students, = 11 boys (1 African American, 10 Caucasian) and 10 girls (2 African American, 8 Caucasian), in a small, urban elementary school in the southeast. The researcher worked closely with a highly regarded, veteran classroom teacher= to create and implement the instructional and data collection activities associated with this study. Each week the teacher and the researcher met pr= ior to interacting with students to discuss assessment data and student learnin= g, with a goal of determining student misconceptions and designing Curriculum Embedded Assessments and Assessment Conversations that concentrated on those same misconceptions. Following this interaction the researcher spent one day each week in the classroom as a participant observer. Methods<o:p></o:= p> To initiat= e the study two small Ivy (Hedera) plants were placed in a medium of potting soil inside separate two-gallon clear glass jars. One was covered with a glass l= id and sealed with duct tape while the second was left open. Both received appropriate amounts of sunlight and enough water to make the soil slightly moist. Students were told that the open container would be watered “as needed” while the closed container would remain sealed. Students then completed their initial work samples, which required that they respond to t= he question, what would happen to the plant in the sealed jar? Responses inclu= ded a specific life-span estimate for the sealed plant-in-a-jar along with eith= er an explanation (justification) for their estimate or a statement about additional information needed to answer the question. Students t= hen recorded observations of the plants in written and audio journals over a ten-week period. Throughout this time students were also encouraged to prov= ide possible explanations for their observations. Student journal entries were shared with the entire class at the beginning of weekly Assessment Conversations and the class was encouraged to react to the entries. During these dialogues students developed group explanations for journal observati= ons and new vocabulary were introduced as students encountered the concepts that the vocabulary represented. These conversations served to elicit student thinking about the plant question and provided information needed to develop future Curriculum Embedded assessments. Based on s= tudent conceptions, other items designed to promote student understanding of vario= us concepts were also put on display. These included demonstrations such as cut celery soaked in food coloring and a hydroponics plant growing system that = were used during instruction related to transpiration. They also included Curric= ulum Embedded assessments used during instruction such as an aquatic plant used = to show the influence of light on photosynthesis. <h3>Data Collection<o:p></o:p><= /u></h3> Work samples were collected from all students= at the beginning, mid-point, and end of the study. Each work sample required students to commit to a plant life-span estimate and provide a justification for the estimate. Typically students drew pictures and included text and/or diagrams to explain their plant life span estimates. All text and audio jou= rnal entries were transcribed and included in the data analysis. Student journal= drawings and other artifacts generated during plant-related activities were examined= to determine the plant-related conceptions they revealed. All Assessment Conversations were recorded on audiotape and transcribed. Additionally, the teacher took summary field notes during these conversations, while the researcher took “in the midst” observation notes and field notes immediately after the fact. <h3>Data Analysis<o:p></o:p></u= ></h3> <h1 style=3D'text-indent:.5in'>Pre-data = were analyzed collectively and patterns in student thinking about various science concepts related to the plant-in-a-jar were identified. Analysis focused on= the study of particular instances, in this situation the initial plant-related conceptions held by participants. Based on patterns apparent in the analysi= s of student conceptions, three themes were identified. An individual was then selected as a representative case from each thematic group and a substantial amount of data analysis was conducted on all additional case data. Finally, data from other students were also examined to determine the degree to which the changes apparent within the cases could be generalized to the larger thematic subgroups.<o:p></o:p></h1> <s= pan style=3D'mso-tab-count:1'> &= nbsp; No attempt was made to probe indivi= dual students about concepts they did not focus on themselves. This decision was based on the notion that student interests, feelings and motivations influe= nce conceptual change (Simpson, Koballa, Oliver, & Crawley, 1994; Lee, Kwon, Park, & Kim, 2003). This decision was also supported by contemporary theories of learning which rest on the assumptions that people construct new knowledge based on what they already know and believe, and that existing conceptions are based on prior experience (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Thus, this researcher investigated only those conceptions students h= ad enough interest in to focus on themselves as this was seen as an indication= of readiness for cognitive change around that particular concept.<o:p></o:p></= span> <h1 align=3Dcenter style=3D'text-align:center'>Findings<o:p></o:p></h1> Table 1 hi= ghlights the conceptions revealed by students in their initial plant life-span justifications. In most cases students believed that the plant in the sealed jar would soon die (n=3D18). The majority of students stated that the plant= would die because the sealed jar would restrict the plant’s access to a sin= gle resource such as air. Other student justifications focused on the lack of multiple resources in the jar, i.e., “The plant will die because it doesn’t get any more water and air.” Student responses were recorded in the manner they were stated.&n= bsp; Those that focused on only one resource, i.e., air, were recorded as such while those that focused on more than one resource, i.e., air and wate= r, were also recorded as a single “instance”. Examination of this data reveal= ed three major themes in the initial justifications provided by students, each focused on a different plant-related misconception. The first, found in the pre-assessments completed by 11 students, was that the plant would soon die= due to a lack of “fresh air”. Although students within this group u= sed different vocabulary, their responses showed that they held misconceptions = related to the gas exchanges occurring = within the sealed jar. The second theme, apparent in 7 students’ pre-assessments, was that the plant would die soon because there was not en= ough water available inside the sealed jar. The third theme, apparent in the pre-assessments of 4 <o:p></o:p> <h1>Table 1 <o:p></o:p></h1> <h1>Pre Plant Life-span Justifications<o= :p></o:p></h1> <table class=3DMsoNormalTable border=3D1 cellspacing=3D0 cellpadding=3D0 wi= dth=3D"100%" style=3D'width:100.0%;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;mso-border-alt:= solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid windowte= xt; mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext'> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:0;mso-yfti-firstrow:yes'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Student explanations (n = =3D 21) </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-left:none;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Total </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:1'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Lack of fresh air </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 6 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:2'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Lack of water </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 4 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:3'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Lack of fresh air and wat= er </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 2 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:4'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Lack of fresh air, water,= and nutrients </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 1 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:5'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Lack of fresh air and too= much water </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 2 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:6'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Too much water = ; </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 2 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:7'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough water </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 1 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:8'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough water and nutrient= </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 1 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:9;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> No justification </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 2 </td> </tr> </table> <o:p> </o:p> students, was that the plant se= aled in the jar would die from too much moisture being trapped in the jar. </spa= n>Each = of these misconception themes is represented here by a purposefully selected c= ase. The cases show the evolution of student ideas apparent in one member of each thematic group and capture the depth of student thinking about plant-related processes witnessed during this study. Further, each individual selected as= a case experienced some degree of conceptual change that could be connected to the discourse and activities associated with this study. Within this case discussion, instances= from classroom activities are included to demonstrate how these formative assessments provided support and scaffolding for the conceptual change experienced by the example cases. Additionally, each case includes a brief discussion of the understandings exhibited by other students related = to the particular theme being discussed. <o:p></o:p> “What about the Air?”<o:p></o:p> In his ini= tial justification <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place= ></st1:City> (pseudonym) stated, “I think the plant will die because it might not = get enough air” (work sample 1). This type of response was typical of tho= se given by students when they discussed the air in the sealed jar. Most used little scientific vocabulary in their initial justifications; none mentioned photosynthesis, cellular respiration, or carbon dioxide and only one used t= he term oxygen, “Eventually the container will be filled with oxygen so = the plant cannot live” (Student 4, work sample 1). The response given by Student 4 hinted at the common misconception held by Tyler and the other students, that the plant in the jar would produce oxygen but not use it up. Additional probing during Assessment Conversations revealed that most of th= ese students held a basic understanding of photosynthesis, but none considered = that a plant could respire. This notion is captured here when <st1:City w:st=3D"= on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City> talked about what plants need to survive, “They (plants) need us cause we exhale carbon dioxide, so it’s kind of like a circle. We need the oxygen plants make and they n= eed the carbon dioxide we make” (Assessment Conversation 1). As the unit progressed <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></= st1:City> held to his ideas about the gases in the jar. This exchange that took place during Assessment Conversation 3 further revealed and clarified his thinkin= g. Teacher: When you breathe oxygen in, it goe= s in your lungs and then what? Student 9: The red blood cells in the blood absorb the oxygen and take it to all parts of your body. C= ause oxygen is required. Teacher: So a real important piece of= this is that it has to do with cells, right because the cells of your body need = that oxygen, yes? <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City>: Well in a differ= ent way this connects to the plant in the jar. Eventually the plant will die because there won’t be any carbon dioxide left. Because the plant tak= es in carbon dioxide and gives off oxygen, so eventually all that will be left= is oxygen. Teacher: So you’re pretty= sure it is going to die soon, it’s going to kind of suffocate? <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:p= lace></st1:City>: Exactly. During wee= k five of the study <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place>= </st1:City> began to recognize and confront his own misconceptions, “The plant-in-a-jar seems to be getting everything it needs. It would have run o= ut of what it needs a long time ago but it somehow is getting what it needs= 221; (Assessment Conversation 5). Later during the same conversation <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City> restated his thinking, making his disequilibria clear, “Plants do consume carbon dioxide so it should have been all gone, but somehow it’s not.”= As the pla= nt continued to live <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:p= lace></st1:City> sought additional information to help him make sense of the mismatch between what he was observing and what he was thinking. He also began to propose alternate ideas that would allow him to reconcile the differences between t= he two. <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:C= ity>: Are humans the on= ly ones who breathe out carbon dioxide? Teacher: I think = it is the same for anything that is alive. <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City>: Well maybe= it is possible that somehow it (the plant) is recycling the gas. Teacher: Say more= about it. <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City>: We’ve talk= ed about other stuff that comes out of the plant, like water. But there might = be some other way for oxygen to turn into carbon dioxide. Teacher: So you think the carbon dioxide is= being recycled in there? <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City>: Yes. Teacher: That might help explain why t= he plant is still so healthy. This also reminds me of what Jennifer (pseudonym) keeps saying; that the carbon dioxide has got to be running out by now. Jennifer: The plant gets in carbon dioxide a= nd lets out oxygen. <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City>: Yes, but we brea= the out carbon dioxide too. So why can’t it work the same way with plants? (Assessment Conversation 6) <o:p> </o:p> Based on these and = other similar exchanges, a Curriculum Embedded Assessment and an Assessment Conversation focused on cellular respiration were developed and implemented. The assessment used computer probes to measure and compare the amount of ca= rbon dioxide gas produced by germinating pea seeds to the amount of carbon dioxi= de gas produced by non-germinating pea seeds. The conversation focused on all living things respiring at the cellular level, that plants are made of live cells, and that the production of carbon dioxide gas in our demonstration w= as evidence of cellular respiration. Tyler experienced an “aha” mo= ment when the class discussed the results and made connections to the plant-in-a-jar, providing the first evidence that he was beginning to resol= ve his own misconceptions. Teacher: What = does the increase (in carbon dioxide gas) tell us about the pea seeds? Student 2: It tells us th= ey are producing carbon dioxide gas. Teacher: If pea seeds make carbon dioxide gas, do you think they stop when they turn into plants? Students: No Student 17: Does that mean that plants breathe? Teacher: </span= >Sort of, not like you and I do, but they do respire and make carbon dioxide gas. It’s called cellular respiration. Every plant cell takes in oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. Does this change the way you think about what is g= oing on with the gas in that jar? Student 9: When does the = plant take in carbon dioxide and oxygen and release them? Teacher: Most= ly at the same time, oxygen is made during the day and carbon dioxide is made all= the time. But I think more oxygen is made during the day than the plant uses up= . <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City>: &= nbsp; Then the plant can make all of the gases it needs! Teacher: I th= ink so. <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City>: &= nbsp; Ohhh, I just thought that the plant could live, but I did not know exactly why. It seems like it does have enough of everything (Assessment Conversation 7).<s= pan style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> <o:p> </o:p> </spa= n>Later, the degree to which <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1= :place></st1:City> enhanced his understanding about the gases in the sealed plant jar was apparent. Approximately three weeks after the pea seed demonstration and associated conversation he stated, “The plant-in-a-jar lived a long t= ime because not only was the plant making oxygen, but it was also making carbon dioxide and recycling water and that is what it needed” (work sample = 3). In this example case <st1:City w:st=3D"on"><s= t1:place w:st=3D"on">Tyler</st1:place></st1:City> developed more complete understan= dings of the gas-related processes taking place within the sealed jar. On his post-assessment he also discussed the water cycle in the sealed jar, a topic not discussed on his pre-assessment. The majority of students who expressed similar misconceptions about gas exchange processes experienced similar positive gains in their understandings about these processes as a result of this work (see summary table in Appendix). In some cases these understandin= gs were stated very simply, “Since the plant-in-a-jar makes its own gases and recycles water, it should not die soon” (Student 13, work sample = 3). In other cases students used scientific language to state their understandi= ngs, “The plant lived because it took in CO2 and made O2</= sub> through photosynthesis, but also took in O2 and made CO2</s= ub> when it breathed” (Student 20, work sample 3). These examples highlig= ht how dialogue with others, focused on explaining observations, provided the impetus for change in student conceptions. Further, this example case showed that confronting misconceptions through meaningful encounters and focused experiences with the concepts in context could have a significant impact on student learning. “Not Enough Water”<o:p>= </o:p> </s= pan>The initial justification provided by Judy (pseudonym) focused on her belief th= at the sealed plant-in-the-jar would not have enough water to survive, “I think that the plant is going to die because it needs water. The plant will= die without water in about 2-5 weeks” (work sample 1). Six other students expressed similar misconceptions at the beginning of this study. Further on= ly 1 student mentioned or portrayed processes associated with the water cycle on= the pre-assessment. Early stud= ent observations focused almost exclusively on moisture in the sealed jar and t= he sharing of observations generated much student discussion, which became a scaffold for student thinking. The following dialogue, captured early in the study, represents the types of student discussions that took place during Assessment Conversations and show how thinking was enhanced through dialogue with peers. Student 8: I noti= ced that the plant has gotten a lot foggier. Student 21: I noticed in the jar that was closed up, it has a lot of fog in it. = It has a lot more than it did yesterday and it’s really misty.= Judy: &= nbsp; I noticed that the sealed up plant has wet leaves because of all the fog moisture. Student 21: Kind of like a mini rain cloud. Judy: </span= >Yea, a mini rain cloud. (Assessment Conversation 2) <o:p> </o:p> This example also shows how students worked from observation toward explanation. The explanations were collaborative in nature and acted as a catalyst for the generation of more complete ideas than students were capable of independently. In this example Judy was able to share her thinking and obtain feedback from peers, at the = same time students worked together using collaborative dialogue to “name&#= 8221; her observation and connect it to their prior knowledge. </s= pan>Later, the class discussed their moisture-related observations and possible explanations for them. During this Assessment Conversation students talked about the water cycle taking place in the sealed plant jar. At this point t= he teacher mentioned that some of the moisture in the jar goes into the plant = at its roots, which created concern and uncertainty among the students. Here J= udy proposed a possible explanation for this newly discovered piece of data. </= p> Student 1: I was just going to say that the plant-in-a-jar can probably recycle wat= er because here on earth we are not getting anymore water but we are not runni= ng out of water. Teacher: O.= K. Judy: &= nbsp; I think that there are lots of cycles for living things and a plant is a livi= ng thing. So maybe it just had one for water. So I think water may somehow come through the leaves because I always heard that it goes into leaves. (Assess= ment Conversation 3) <o:p> </o:p> Based on these and similar conversations, the= teacher and researcher developed and implemented a Curriculum Embedded Assessment a= nd Assessment Conversation focused on transpiration. The assessment required students to cover a portion of an outdoor plant with a plastic sandwich bag= gy and make observations of it for fifteen minutes. During the activity studen= ts discovered that water was exiting the plant through its leaves. In the Assessment Conversation that followed Judy began to solidify her earlier id= eas about water exiting plant leaves. Student 3: Remember we said the earth is not getting any new water on it. Then it d= oes not have any more water on it now than ever before. Judy: &= nbsp; Then things are obviously recycling water. The earth is not gaining any more wat= er so nothing really uses it up. Teacher: Anyone want to say anything else about that? Why is the plant not using the water up? Judy: &= nbsp; Maybe the plant is taking the water up, in the roots, and then it takes the stuff= it needs from the water. Then the water goes back out through the leaves. (Ass= essment Conversation 4) <o:p> </o:p> This exchange provi= des another example of how instruction focused on student misconceptions, suppo= rted by Assessment Conversations, acted as scaffolding for students; helping them make additional connections and thereby developing more complete understandings. At the end of this study a clear change in th= e way that Judy thought about water in the sealed jar was revealed, I think that the plant is still alive because at first = we watered it once. The plant takes up some of the water and it moves through = the plant and goes out the leaves. Some of the water evaporates from the soil i= nto the jar too. All the water becomes little drops on the side and the water s= ort of rains down on the plant. (work sample 3) <o:p> </o:p> Fourteen other st= udents expressed similar understandings on their post-assessments (see Appendix for summary data). All stated that the plant-in-the-jar would have enough water to survive. This is a significant change from the pre-assessments on which only 2 students stated that the plant-in-a-jar would have enough wate= r to survive and 11 stated that they = plant would die from a lack of water. In addition 8 of the students accura= tely discussed and/or portrayed the water cycle on their post-assessments. The c= an be contrasted with the pre-assessments completed by these same students on which only 1 student included information about the water cycle. The case of Judy further demonstrates how instruction focused on misconceptions, accompanied by evidentiary-based dialogue, acted as scaffolding for student learning. Her examples illustrate that student observations, accompanied by dialogue with others focused on explaining those observations, provided a catalyst for change in conception= s. This case also highlighted the power of focused, as needed, Curriculum Embe= dded Assessments that promote recognition and confrontation of misconceptions.</= p> “Too Much Water”<o:p></o:p>= </s= pan>Zina’s (pseudonym) initial conception that “The plant will die because of too much water” (work sample 1), was also held by 3 other students in this study group. As discussed in the case of Judy, the first weeks of independe= nt student observations and dialogue focused on the moisture apparent inside of the sealed jar. During this time many students were making connections to important science concepts such as conservation of matter and the water cyc= le. Even as other students were sharing these types of ideas, Zina held to her original conceptions, “Water keeps raining down on the plant. The mis= t on the sides keeps raining down on the plant. It may make it too moist” (Assessment Conversation 2). <= /p> Over the n= ext couple of weeks, student conversations comparing observations of the moistu= re in the sealed jar to the water cycle continued. During this time Zina wrote= in the observation journal, “On Friday the plant with the top on it was = not foggy but today it started to get foggy again”. This was her first mention of variation in the amount of water visible in the jar. When the observation was shared with the class during the weekly Assessment Conversa= tion it led to a class discussion of variations that occur in water cycle proces= ses (i.e., the rate of evaporation changes due to atmospheric conditions). Following = the transpiration activity previously described Zina returned to the issue of water. During this dialogue, she talked about her observations of moisture captured in a plastic bag placed over plant leaves and then hinted that her ideas about water in the jar were changing, I think that the water from the roots is going up t= hrough the stem into the leaf that is in the bag. Really the whole question is, do= es the plant make any water or just use it? Because water is the stuff that is= on the inside of the bag and it came from the plant roots. That’s like t= he plant-in-a-jar. It can only use the water that is in the soil already. (Assessment Conversation 4) <o:p> </o:p= > During an Assessment Conversation that took place the following week, students were a= sked to share how their ideas about the plant-in-a-jar had changed. During this conversation Zina stated, I thought the plant would die from too much water. = I did not know if plants made a lot more water and I did not remember about the w= ater cycle. But now I know that all the water stays in the jar and gets used over and over again. (Assessment Conversation 4) <o:p> </o:p> Approximately six weeks aft= er stating her revised conceptions publicly Zina returned to the issue of wate= r on her post-assessment, “I think the plant is still alive because the pl= ant keeps watering itself. It has all the water it needs and keeps reusing it” (work sample 3). Like Judy,= Zina did not focus much of her thinking on other important plant related concepts such as photosynthesis or respiration. Instead, she focused most of her thinking on a single question related to the water in the jar. Even though = they held diverse conceptions related to the moisture in the jar initially, both Zina and Judy benefited from well-planned interventions and the collaborati= ve idea building that took place during classroom discourse. These changes reinforce the importance of well-planned interventions and dialogue, focuse= d on personal conceptions, as devices to promote conceptual change. Summary<o:p></o:p> Not all the students involved in this project experienced the same degree of cognitive growth. Further, these findings revealed that students did not always focus their thinking on the intended topics, but instead focused on those concept= ions that were most apparent and relevant to them. Table 2 summarizes the post-s= tudy justifications students provided to the prompt, “Why is the plant-in-= a-sealed jar still alive?” These results show a trend toward more complete understandings of important plant-related concepts. At the same time, the findings revealed that some students still held misconceptions or only focu= sed on certain factors related to the health of the sealed plant. Consistent wi= th previous research (Bangert-Drowns, Kulick & Morgan, 1991; Sadler 1989), making personal gaps in understanding apparent to students appeared to be a= key to altering student misconceptions during this study. <h1>Table 2 <o:p></o:p></h1> <h1>Post Plant Life-span Justifications<= o:p></o:p></h1> <table class=3DMsoNormalTable border=3D1 cellspacing=3D0 cellpadding=3D0 wi= dth=3D"100%" style=3D'width:100.0%;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;mso-border-alt:= solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid windowte= xt; mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext'> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:0;mso-yfti-firstrow:yes'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Student explanations (n = =3D 21) </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-left:none;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Total </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:1'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough air </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 4 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:2'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough air and water </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 8 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:3'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough water </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 2 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:4'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough water and nutrient= s </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 1 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:5'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough air, water and nut= rients </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 3 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:6'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Enough water, lack of air= = ; </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 1 </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:7;mso-yfti-lastrow:yes'> <td width=3D"49%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:49.98%;border:solid windowt= ext 1.0pt; border-top:none;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:s= olid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> No justification </td> <td width=3D"50%" valign=3Dtop style=3D'width:50.02%;border-top:none;bord= er-left: none;border-bottom:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-right:solid windowtext 1= .0pt; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-left-alt:solid window= text .5pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> 2 </td> </tr> </table> <o:p> </o:p> In this case students were = provided with contextualized opportunities to identify their own misconceptions thro= ugh a series of Curriculum Embedded Assessments (Furtak, 2005). These assessmen= ts provided students with instruction and experiences focused on their specific misconceptions, thereby promoting the type of dissonance required for conceptual change to occur. Students also had many opportunities to engage = in discourse about their thinking through Assessment Conversations (Duschl 200= 3; Duschl & Gitomer, 1997), as well as extended periods of time to struggle with gaps in their own thinking. These conversations served as a type of discourse treatment that pushed student thinking. That these treatments occurred over time also seemed to be relevant. For example, Zina needed repeated discourse treatments over an extended period of time in order to reconcile the misconceptions she held. <o:p> </o:p> <h2>Implications<o:p></o:p></h2> The limitations associated with= this study cannot be ignored when discussing this research. This work was conduc= ted in conjunction between a university researcher and a highly effective, vete= ran classroom teacher. This unique form of collaboration brought enhanced resources, as well as additional human and intellectual capital that are not typical of the elementary classroom. This work took place over an extended period of time and focused on answering a single question. As a result it becomes important to determine which of these factors or combination of factors had the greatest influence= on this change. These limitations, in conjunction with these findings, highlig= ht the need for additional studies that measure the influence of formative assessment practices on students’ understanding of science concepts in more typical elementary classroom settings. <o:p></o:p> If found to be effective instructional tools in other studies, these findings have implications for = the way science is taught in elementary grades, as well as the emphasis placed = on it. This instructional model focused on studying fewer questions, in-depth = and over time, while providing students with focused feedback and many opportunities to share their thinking. This type of instructional shift will require a rethinking and reconfiguration of science education as it current= ly exists in elementary schools. </span= ><o:p></o:p> </s= pan>This research also informs those working with current and future science teacher= s. These findings suggest that science methods courses need to do more than ex= pose preservice teachers to “practice” model science lessons or theo= ries of learning. Instead science methods courses need to become environments wh= ere preservice teachers have opportunities to engage students in formative assessment practices. Only by engaging students in these practices will sci= ence teachers be able to apply them in their own classrooms. 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Proceedings of the 2002 Association for the Education of Teachers of Science Annual Conference, <st1:place w:st=3D"on">= <st1:City w:st=3D"on">Charlotte</st1:City>, <st1:State w:st=3D"on">NC</st1:State></s= t1:place>. 2002aets <a href=3D"http://www.ed.psu.edu/CI/Journals/2002aets/s5_stein_mcmair.rtf"><sp= an style=3D'color:windowtext;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>http://= www.ed.psu.edu/CI/Journals/2002aets/s5_stein_mcmair.rtf</a> (Accessed, June 2006).<o:p></o:p> Wandersee, J.H. & Schussler, E.E. (2001). Toward a theory of plant blindness, Plant Science Bulletin 47:2-9. Weaver, G.C. (1998). Strategies in k-12 scien= ce instruction to promote conceptual change. Science Education, 82(4), 455-472. White, B.Y., & Frederiksen, J.R. (1998). Inquiry, modeling, and metacognition: Making science accessible to all students. Cognition and Instruction, 16(1), 3-118. <u= >Appen= dix<o:p></o:p> <s= pan style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Plant= -related Conceptions Revealed by Students <o:p></o:p> <table class=3DMsoNormalTable border=3D1 cellspacing=3D0 cellpadding=3D0 style=3D'margin-left:.5in;border-collapse:collapse;border:none;mso-border-= alt: solid windowtext .5pt;mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt;mso-border-insid= eh: .5pt solid windowtext;mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext'> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:0;mso-yfti-firstrow:yes;page-break-inside:avoid= '> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-alt:so= lid windowtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td colspan=3D3 valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;borde= r-left: none;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windo= wtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Pre<o:p></o:p> </td> <td colspan=3D3 valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;borde= r-left: none;mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windo= wtext .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> Post<o:p></o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:1;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Stu= dent<o:p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Gas= Cycle<o:p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Wat= er Cycle<o:p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Nut= rients<o:p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Gas= Cycle<o:p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Wat= er Cycle<o:p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>Nut= rients<o:p></o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:2;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>1<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:3;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>2<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:4;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>3<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:5;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>4<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:6;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>5<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:7;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>6<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:8;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>7<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:9;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>8<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>N<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> </tr> <tr style=3D'mso-yfti-irow:10;page-break-inside:avoid'> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border:solid windowtext 1.0pt;border-top:none; mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext = .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>9<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'><o:= p> </o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <td valign=3Dtop style=3D'border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:= solid windowtext 1.0pt; border-right:solid windowtext 1.0pt;mso-border-top-alt:solid windowtext .= 5pt; mso-border-left-alt:solid windowtext .5pt;mso-border-alt:solid windowtext= .5pt; padding:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt'> <= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:200%'>A<o= :p></o:p> </td> <